日心说
此條目可参照英語維基百科相應條目来扩充。 (2026年6月23日) |
日心说(英语:Heliocentrism),也称为地动说,是一種地位已被取代的天文學理论和模型。在该模型中,太陽居於宇宙的中心,地球及行星則围绕其运动。在歷史上,它与將地球置於中心位置的主流学说天動說相對立,并在16世纪的哥白尼革命以后逐渐取代了地心說的地位。在現代天文學理論中,日心说已被基於宇宙学原理的模型所取代,這些模型認爲宇宙並不存在一个絕對的中心或首選參照系。


早在公元前三世紀,萨摩斯岛的阿里斯塔克就曾提出過地球圍繞太陽旋轉的構想[1]。他的观点据信受到克羅托內的菲洛勞斯影響。菲羅勞斯在公元前世纪曾提出:地球是球形的,並且繞着一種神祕的中央火旋轉,而此火則控制着整個宇宙[2]。 然而,在中世紀歐洲,阿里斯塔克斯所提出的地動説並未引起多少關注。這或許是因爲當時希臘化時期的科學著作在欧洲已大多遗失[a]。
直到十六世紀的文艺复兴時期,尼古拉·哥白尼才重新提出了基于日心説的理論體系和數學模型,并由此引發了哥白尼革命。在隨後的一個世紀裏,約翰內斯·開普勒爲行星运动引入了橢圓軌道,将哥白尼的日心说发展为日后被普遍接受的形式,并显示了它相对于地心说的优越性。而伽利略·伽利萊則通過望遠鏡對太陽系進行了觀測,为日心说提供了关键的支持证据。日心说开始逐渐取代地心说,被人们接受。
日心说将地球移出了宇宙的中心,否认了人类作为宇宙观察者的特殊地位,这被称为哥白尼原理。根據威廉·赫歇爾、弗里德里希·贝塞尔等天文學家的觀測結果,人們發現太陽也不是宇宙的中心。現代天文學理論並不認為有任何宇宙中心或首选参考系,这被称之为宇宙学原理。日心说這一術語现在仍保留着剩餘的真理價值,但其範圍已被縮小為人类所在的太阳系内[4]。
早期日心说
[编辑]地球是球形的观念至少从自公元前四世纪起就在希腊-罗马天文学界被广泛接受[5],但关于地球周日自转和围绕太阳周年公转的觀點直到哥白尼革命时期才被普遍接受。大约在公元前四世纪,毕达哥拉斯学派提出了地球绕“中心火”运动的觀念,公元前三世纪萨摩斯的阿里斯塔克斯发展了一个较为完整的地動說模型,但是这些观点并没有能取代静止地球观念的地位。自公元二世纪起直到公元16世纪,在天文学界占主导地位的模型是托勒密在其著作《天文学大成》中所描述的天動說模型[6]。

畢达哥拉斯学派
[编辑]第一个非天動説模型是由毕达哥拉斯学派的哲学家菲洛勞斯在公元前390年左右提出的。他认为在宇宙的中心是一团“中心火”。地球、太阳、月亮及行星围绕着中心火以均匀的圆周运动旋转。这个体系假设存在一个“反地球”,和地球隔着中心火相对,并且围绕中心火的旋转周期与地球相同。太阳每年围绕中央火转一次,星星是静止的。地球始终是一面朝向中心火,所以在地球另一面的人类看不见中心火和“反地球”。在接下来的大约2000年里,毕达哥拉斯的天体匀速圆周运动概念一直没有受到质疑。哥白尼在他的著作中也提到毕达哥拉斯和菲洛劳斯等对他提出移动地球的概念的影响[7]。开普勒认为毕达哥拉斯派思想中的“中心火”就是指的太阳,并聲稱这是“大多数教派故意隐藏的教义”[8]。
公元前四世纪,庞都的赫拉克利德提出用地球的自转来解释天体的表观周日运动。他也曾经被认为提出了水星和金星圍繞太陽旋轉,而太陽又(與其他行星一起)圍繞地球旋轉的观点。但这一看法现在有很大争议[9]。馬克羅比烏斯(CE 395—423)后来将其描述为“埃及系统”,聲称“它没有逃脱埃及人的技能”,尽管在古埃及没有其他证据能夠證實這一點[10][11]。
萨摩斯的阿里斯塔克斯
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已知第一个提出地動説系统的人是萨摩斯的阿里斯塔克斯(约公元前270年)。阿里斯塔克斯测量了太阳和月亮的大小和距离。根据他所進行的估计,他得出了结论,認為太阳比地球宽六到七倍,并且认为较小的物体(地球)围绕更大的物体(太阳)运动是更自然的假设[12]: 76 。
阿里斯塔克关于天動説系统的著作已经失傳,但从他的同时代人阿基米德的简要描述和后来作家的零星参考资料中可以略知一二。阿基米德对阿里斯塔克斯理论的描述在前者的《数沙者》一书中被提及,托马斯·希思對此所作的翻译如下[13]:
陛下您(盖隆国王)想必已知晓,大多数天文学家将“宇宙”这一名称赋予这样一个球体:该球体的球心即是地球的中心,而其半径则等于太阳中心与地球中心之间的直线距离。这是普遍接受的观点,正如陛下从天文学家那里所听到的那样。然而,阿里斯塔克斯写了一本书。根据书中的假设可以得出这样的结论:即宇宙要比刚才所提到的“宇宙”大上许多倍。他的假设是:恒星和太阳保持静止不动,地球则沿着以太阳为中心的圆周轨道绕太阳运转;恒星天球同样以太阳为中心。恒星天球是如此巨大,以至于他所设想的地球运转轨道与恒星距离的比值,就如同球心与球面的比值一样。
——《数沙者》 (Arenarius I, 4–7)[13]
阿里斯塔克斯认为恒星离得很远,理由是如果地球的轨道相对于天球的大小是显著的,那么恒星之间的相对角距会在一年中发生可以被观测到的变化(所谓恒星视差)。事实上,这些恒星离得很远,以至于直到十九世纪三十年代,借助于足够强大的望远镜,天文学家才第一次检测到恒星的视差[14]。
成書於公元前的任何其他作品都没有提及阿里斯塔克斯所提出的天動説。在之后的文献中,最早提及阿里斯塔克斯日心说是普鲁塔克的两段文字。这些文字提到了阿基米德的叙述中没有明确说明的一个细节 —— 即阿里斯塔克斯的理论还包括了地球的自转。其中第一个引用出现在《论月面》中[15]:
但愿你不要像克里安西斯那样,以不敬神的名义对我提起诉讼,我的好朋友。克里安西斯认为,希腊人有责任以不敬神之罪起诉萨摩斯的阿里斯塔克斯,因为后者让宇宙之炉运动了起来 —— 阿里斯塔克斯试图通过假设天体保持静止,而地球在自身绕轴自转的同时又沿着一条倾斜的圆轨道公转,来解释各种天文现象。
——《论月面》(De facie in orbe lunae, c. 6, pp. 922 F – 923 A.)
这里提到的克里安西斯是希腊化时代的哲学家,他的著作只有零星片段幸存下来。但第欧根尼·拉尔修在《哲人言行录》中确实记录了克里安西斯曾写过一篇对阿里斯塔克斯的答复[16]。有學者[17]認為这可能就是普鲁塔克提到的克里安西斯指控阿里斯塔克斯不敬神一事。
普魯塔克對阿里斯塔克斯日心说的第二个引用出現在他所著的《柏拉图问答》中[18]:
柏拉图是否让地球也运动了起来,就像因其运动而被称之为时间工具的太阳、月亮和五大行星那样?是否有必要认为,地球这个“固定在贯穿整个宇宙的轴线上的球体”,其实并非固定在轴线上且静止的;而是如阿里斯塔克斯和后来的塞琉古所断言的那样在转动与旋转 —— 前者仅将其作为一种假设提出,而后者则将其视作一种确定的论断。
——《柏拉圖問答》 (Platonicae Quaestiones viii. I, 1006 C)
其余关于阿里斯塔克斯日心说的文献记载都极其简短,未能提供超出上述文献之外的更多資料。但在阿提乌斯的《哲学家意见集》,塞克斯都·恩披里柯的《反对数学家》[18],以及一部亚里士多德著作的匿名评注[19] 中,都明确提到了阿里斯塔克斯的名字。此外,阿提乌斯的《哲学家意见集》中另一段文字记录了天文学家塞琉古曾断言地球是运动的,但這段文字没有提及阿里斯塔克斯[18]。
哥白尼的日心说
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现代的日心说宇宙模型是由波兰天文学家尼古拉·哥白尼在十六世纪提出。其内容被总结在1543年发表的《天体运行论》和之前撰写但并未出版的《短论》中。
哥白尼模型的要点包括:
- 天体运动是均匀永恒的圆周运动[20] ,或者是几个圆周(本轮)的组合[21]。哥白尼继承了毕达哥拉斯关于天体运动是匀速圆周运动的观念,也保留了托勒密体系的钧轮本轮系统。
- 地球并非宇宙的中心,而是一颗行星,绕着太阳运转;宇宙的中心靠近太阳。尽管哥白尼将太阳置于地球轨道中心,他并没有将其置于宇宙的绝对中心,而是放在靠近中心的地方[22][23][24]。
- 围绕太阳,按顺序排列着水星、金星、地球与月球、火星、木星、土星以及恒星。
- 地球有三种运动:周日自转、周年公转以及地轴的回转运动。哥白尼引入第三种运动以解释分点岁差。
- 行星的逆行是由地球的运动来解释的。哥白尼认为逆行是视觉效应,由地球和行星在不同轨道上的公转速度差所致。
- 与到恒星的距离相比,从地球到太阳的距离是很小的。这一点是为了解释天文学家一直不能观察到恒星视差的事实。

和托勒密体系相比,哥白尼的钧轮本轮系统有以下特点:
- 废除了均衡点。哥白尼认为均衡点违背了真正的均匀圆周运动原理,因而用更多的本轮取代了托勒密模型中的均衡点。这对于同时代那些同样信仰毕达哥拉斯匀速圆周运动的天文学家而言,这是该模型的主要优点[25]。
- 对逆行的解释不再需要本轮。这使得哥白尼模型在概念上更加简洁。
- 使用更小的本轮。因为哥白尼的圆轨道很接近太阳系中真实的椭圆轨道,他只需要较小的本轮来进行修正。哥白尼体系中的本轮被称为“小轮”(epicyclets)[12]: 90 。
因为以上的优点,哥白尼的模型对阅读过《天体运行论》的很多16世纪天文学家(包括后来的伽利略)具有一定的美学吸引力,但他们中的大多数虽然对哥白尼体系很感兴趣,但并不能完全接受。这主要是基于以下的原因:
- 它并不比托勒密模型更准确。附加了小轮的哥白尼模型能达到和托勒密模型同样的精度,但并不能超过后者[26]。
- 缺乏解释地球运动的物理机制。是什么样的力量,才能让如此巨大笨重的地球持续转动,永不停息[27]?地心说没有这些问题,因为根据当时通行的亚里斯多德理论,天体是由极为轻盈的“以太”构成[28]。我们为什么不会被地球的自转甩出地球?为什么把球往上一丢,掉下来时却仍在原地?现在我们知道这些是可以被惯性作用解释,但惯性的概念要到十七世纪初,才由伽利略等人提出[29]。
- 缺乏证明地球运动的关键性天文观测:恒星视差。虽然哥白尼对此给出了正确解释:恒星离地球太远,以至于视差太小,用肉眼无法观测。但这个关键性证据的缺乏一直困扰日心说,直到19世纪,天文学家首次用望远镜观测到恒星视差才得以解决[14]。
- 若为了解释缺乏恒星视差而承认恒星距离地球非常遥远,则会面临另一个困难:如此遥远的恒星能被我们看到,它们必定十分巨大。这对当时的人们,包括第谷·布拉赫在内都是难以想象的[30]。
日心说的接受
[编辑]《天体运行论》发表后的最初几十年里,大多数天文学家们一方面对哥白尼日心体系在概念上的简洁性表示欣赏,另一方面又无法接受地球运动的观念。比如第谷·布拉赫就提出了一个妥协的体系,即太阳绕地球转动,但其他行星绕太阳运动[26]: 200–202 。在学术界之外,激进的新教徒,比如马丁路德,对日心说大加鞭挞,但天主教罗马教廷并没有太激烈的反应[29]。
但也有天文学家接受了哥白尼的地心学说,乔尔达诺·布努诺就是其中一个。布努诺有很多离经叛道的观念,包括支持日心说,并将其发展为宇宙无限论。他在1600年以异端罪名被宗教裁判所审判并被烧死在火刑柱上,但日心说在他的罪名中有多大比重是有争议的[31][32][33]。
约翰内斯·开普勒是另一个支持哥白尼日心说的天文学家,他攥写的《哥白尼天文学概要》对日心说的传播起了重要作用。开普勒在继承了第谷观测数据之后发现,哥白尼体系和托勒密体系的数据均未能与第谷的观测相吻合。他进行了各种尝试,试图建立一个能完全符合第谷数据的日心体系。最终他发现以椭圆轨道取代圆形轨道修正了日心说之后,可以完全摒弃本轮钧轮系统。而且其精度超出哥白尼和托勒密的模型,能完全符合第谷的观测数据[12]: 94 。他的理论被发表在1609年出版的《新天文学》中,这标志着现代日心说的建立。
支持日心说的天文学家还包括伽利略·伽利莱。1609年伽利略听闻并自製了望远镜,并在人类历史第一次用望远镜进行了天文观测。伽利略发现了一些可以支持日心说的新的天文现象。他观察到了太阳黑子,动摇了亚理斯多德“完美天体”的信条;木星卫星的发现表明了地球不是宇宙中唯一被天体环绕的事物;金星满盈现象则完全否定了托勒密体系[12]: 97 。但这个时候罗马教廷在压力之下已经开始对日心说加大审查力度,伽利略被宗教裁判所传唤。他试图劝说教廷接受日心说但未成功,日心说和《天体运行论》在1616年被禁[29],伽利略也于1633年被判在家终身监禁。
但以哥白尼日心说为开端的科学革命已经在欧洲逐渐展开。伽利略提出了新的物理学,惯性概念为地球的运动提供了物理学基础。弗兰西斯·培根和勒内·笛卡尔发展了新的科学哲学和方法论。艾萨克·牛顿在1687年发表《自然哲学的数学原理》,从力学角度证明了日心说和开普勒行星运动定律,彻底奠定了现代科学的基础[34]。
18和19世纪天文学和物理学的发展最终为地球的运动和日心说提供了确实的观测证明。1727年,詹姆斯·布拉德利证实了光行差的存在,证明了地球的相对运动[35]。1838年,弗里德里希·贝塞尔首次测到天鹅座61的视差为0.314角秒[14],终于为日心说补上了这块从阿里斯塔克时代就一直缺失的重要拼图。1851年,莱昂·傅科在巴黎的先贤祠演示了著名的傅科摆实验,以简单直观的方式在大众面前展示了地球自转的证据[36]。日心说最终被天文学家和大众所接受。
参見
[编辑]註解
[编辑]- ^ According to Lucio Russo, the heliocentric view was expounded in Hipparchus' work on gravity.[3]
参考文獻
[编辑]- ^ Dreyer 1953,第135–148頁; Linton 2004,第38f.頁. The work of Aristarchus in which he proposed his heliocentric system has not survived. We only know of it now from a brief passage in Archimedes' The Sand Reckoner.
- ^ Huffman, Carl. Philolaus and the central fire. Brills Studies in Intellectual History. 2008, 161: 57–58.
- ^ Russo, Lucio. The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why it Had to Be Reborn. 由Levy, Silvio翻译. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 2003: 293–296. ISBN 978-3-540-20068-0.
- ^ heliocentrism, Wiktionary, the free dictionary, 2025-08-18 [2025-09-13] (英语)
- ^ Dicks, D.R. Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. 1970: 68. ISBN 978-0-8014-0561-7.
- ^ The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. geocentric model. Britannica. [2022-08-09]. (原始内容存档于2022-09-26) (英语).
- ^ Boyer, C. A History of Mathematics. Wiley, p. 54.
- ^ Kepler, Johannes. Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. 1618–1621. Book IV, Part 1.2.
- ^ Eastwood, B. S., Heraclides and Heliocentrism – Texts Diagrams and Interpretations, Journal for the History of Astronomy, 1992-11-01, 23 (4): 233, Bibcode:1992JHA....23..233E, S2CID 118643709, doi:10.1177/002182869202300401
- ^ Neugebauer, Otto E., A history of ancient mathematical astronomy, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York: Springer: 695, 1975, ISBN 978-3-540-06995-9
- ^ Rufus, W. Carl, The astronomical system of Copernicus, Popular Astronomy, 1923, 31: 511–512 [512], Bibcode:1923PA.....31..510R
- ^ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Schneider and Arny. Pathways to Astronomy. 2025.
- ^ 13.0 13.1 Heath (1913,第302頁). The italics and parenthetical comments are as they appear in Heath's original.
- ^ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Reid, Mark. The first stellar parallaxes revisited. Astronomische Nachrichten. 2020, 341 (9): 860–869. Bibcode:2020AN....341..860R. S2CID 221949223. arXiv:2009.11913
. doi:10.1002/asna.202013833.
- ^ Heath (1913,第304頁). Most modern scholars share Heath's opinion that it is Cleanthes in this passage who is being held as having accused Aristarchus of impiety (see Gent & Godwin 1883,第240頁; Dreyer 1953,第138頁; Prickard 1911,第20頁; Cherniss 1957, p. 55; for example). The manuscripts of Plutarch's Concerning the Face Which Appears in the Orb of the Moon that have come down to us are corrupted, however, and the traditional interpretation of the passage has been challenged by Lucio Russo, who insists that it should be interpreted as having Aristarchus rhetorically suggest that Cleanthes was being impious for wanting to shift the Sun from its proper place at the center of the universe (Russo 2013,第82頁; Russo & Medaglia 1996,第113–117頁).
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius (1972, Bk 7, ch 5, p. 281)
- ^ Edwards 1998,p. 68 and n. 104, p. 455, for instance.
- ^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Heath 1913,第305頁.
- ^ Dreyer 1953,第139頁.
- ^ "All movement within it (outside of the immediate vicinity of the Earth) is determined by the fundamental principle that heavenly movement is circular and therefore unchanging. Ptolemy, Copernicus thought, had betrayed this principle not...by adding epicycles to deferents in order to explain why the planets sometimes appear to move backwards in the sky, but by introducing the equant in order to speed them up and slow them down." Wootton, David. The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution (Penguin, 2015). p.152. ISBN 0-06-175952-X
- ^ "My Copernican census eventually helped to establish that the majority of sixteenth-century astronomers thought eliminating the equant was Copernicus' big achievement, because it satisfied the ancient aesthetic principle that eternal celestial motions should be uniform and circular or compounded of uniform and circular parts." Gingerich, Owen. The Book Nobody Read (Walker & Company, 2004).p.55. ISBN 0-8027-1415-3
- ^ "The man who had deposed the earth from its proud position as the centre of the universe and had recognized it to be merely one of the planets, had yet felt compelled to give it quite an exceptional position in his new system. Though he had said 'in the midst of all stand the sun,' he had in his planetary theories assumed the centre of all movements to be the centre of the earth's orbit, where the sun was not." Dreyer, J.L.E. A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler, (Dover Publications, 1953). p.343. ISBN 9780486600796
- ^ "...it was obvious to Copernicus...that the earth cannot move uniformly about a circle with the sun at the center. Thus Copernicus placed the sun not at the center of the earth's orbit, but at some distance away. The center of the solar system, and of the universe, in the system of Copernicus is thus not the sun at all, but rather a 'mean sun,' of the center of the earth's orbit. Hence, it is preferable to call the Copernican system a heliostatic system rather than a heliocentric system." Cohen, I. Bernard. The Birth of a New Physics (Revised and Updated) (W.W. Norton & Company, 1985). p.44. ISBN 0-393-01994-2
- ^ "Copernicus's universe is different from Ptolemy's in that the sun, not the Earth, lies at (or rather, to be exact, very close to) its centre." Wootton, David. The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution (Penguin, 2015). p.152. ISBN 0-06-175952-X
- ^ Gingerich, Owen. The Book Nobody Read: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Walker & Company. 2004: 55. ISBN 0-8027-1415-3.
While [Copernicus] had eliminated all of Ptolemy's major epicycles, merging them all into the Earth's orbit, he then introduced a series of little epicycles to replace the equant, one per planet. Because this made the motion uniform in each Copernican circle, the anti-equant aesthetic was satisfied. My Copernican census eventually helped to establish that the majority of sixteenth-century astronomers thought eliminating the equant was Copernicus' big achievement, because it satisfied the ancient aesthetic principle that eternal celestial motions should be uniform and circular or compounded of uniform and circular parts.
- ^ 26.0 26.1 Kuhn, Thomas S. The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1992: 169. ISBN 978-0-674-17103-9.
...Copernicus can give a more economical qualitative account of the planetary motions than Ptolemy. But to gain a reasonably good quantitative account of the alterations of planetary position, Ptolemy had been compelled to complicate the fundamental twelve-circle system with minor epicycles, eccentrics, and equants., and to get comparable results from his basic seven-circle system Copernicus, too, was forced to use minor epicycles and eccentrics. His full system was little if any less cumbersome than Ptolemy's had been. Both employed over thirty circles; there was little to choose between them in economy. Nor could the two systems be distinguished by their accuracy. When Copernicus had finished adding circles, his cumberbersome sun-centered system gave results as accurate as Ptolemy's, but it did not give more accurate results. Copernicus did not solve the problem of the planets.
- ^ Tycho said that the Copernican system "... expertly and completely circumvents all that is superfluous or discordant in the system of Ptolemy. On no point does it offend the principle of mathematics. Yet it ascribes to the Earth, that hulking, lazy body, unfit for motion, a motion as quick as that of the aethereal torches, and a triple motion at that." Owen Gingerich, The eye of heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler, New York: American Institute of Physics, 1993, 181, ISBN 0-8831-8863-5
- ^ 科學或信仰?哥白尼的日心說. 科學棋談. 2023-01-15 [2025-12-26] (中文(臺灣)).
- ^ 29.0 29.1 29.2 物理雙月刊PSROC. 你不知道的哥白尼(下):「日心說」一問世馬上遭到羅馬教廷鐵血鎮壓?其實這並非事實. TNL The News Lens 關鍵評論網. 2022-08-07 [2025-12-26] (中文(臺灣)).
- ^ Graney, Christopher M. Regarding how Tycho Brahe noted the absurdity of the Copernican Theory regarding the Bigness of Stars, while the Copernicans appealed to God to answer that absurdity. ArXiv. 9 Dec 2011.
- ^ Michael J. Crowe, The Extraterrestrial Life Debate 1750–1900, Cambridge University Press, 1986, p. 10, "[Bruno's] sources... seem to have been more numerous than his followers, at least until the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century revival of interest in Bruno as a supposed 'martyr for science.' It is true that he was burned at the stake in Rome in 1600, but the church authorities guilty of this action were almost certainly more distressed at his denial of Christ's divinity and alleged diabolism than at his cosmological doctrines."
- ^ Shackelford, Joel. Myth 7 That Giordano Bruno was the first martyr of modern science. Numbers, Ronald L. (编). Galileo goes to jail and other myths about science and religion. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 2009: 66. "Yet the fact remains that cosmological matters, notably the plurality of worlds, were an identifiable concern all along and appear in the summary document: Bruno was repeatedly questioned on these matters, and he apparently refused to recant them at the end.14 So, Bruno probably was burned alive for resolutely maintaining a series of heresies, among which his teaching of the plurality of worlds was prominent but by no means singular."
- ^ Gatti, Hilary. Why Giordano Bruno's "Tranquil Universal Philosophy" Finished in a Fire. Lavery, Jonathan; Groarke, Louis; Sweet, William (编). Ideas under Fire: Historical Studies of Philosophy and Science in Adversity. Fairleigh Dickinson. 2012-10-26: 116–118. ISBN 978-1-61147-543-2 (英语).
One of the first and most notable developments consisted in a growing awareness that earlier commentators had indeed been right to consider Bruno's trial as being closely linked to that of Galileo (...) Jean Seidengart underlined the particular emphasis to be found throughout the trial on Bruno's doctrine of a plurality of worlds." and "Bruno, however, by admitting so candidly his distance from the Catholic theology, was indirectly questioning such a system of law, which imposed on his conscience views different from his own. (...) he was doing it in the name of a principle of religious pluralism which derived directly from his cosmology.
- ^ G E Smith, "Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2008 Edition), E N Zalta (ed.).
- ^
Bradley, James. A Letter from the Reverend Mr. James Bradley Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford, and F.R.S. to Dr.Edmond Halley Astronom. Reg. &c. Giving an Account of a New Discovered Motion of the Fix'd Stars.. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. 1727–1728, 35 (406): 637–661. Bibcode:1727RSPT...35..637B. doi:10.1098/rstl.1727.0064
.
- ^ Oprea, John. Geometry and the Foucault Pendulum
. Amer. Math. Monthly. 1995, 102 (6): 515–522. JSTOR 2974765. doi:10.2307/2974765. (原始内容存档于2015-04-02).
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