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維基百科，自由的百科全書
新加坡:給排水現狀概述
The flag of Singapore
數據
改良水覆蓋率 100% (2012) [1]
改良衛生設施覆蓋率 100% (2012) [1]
連續供給程度(%) 100
城市人均每日用水量(每人/每天/每升) 148 (2016) [2][3]
城市人均生活用水水費與排污費(每立方米) US$1.88 [4]
水費分戶計量實施範圍 100%
給排水工程年均總投資 6.9億美元(2010),或每人每年117美元 [5]
Institutions
國家水資源管理機構 公用事業局(PUB)[6]
國家水資源管理部門 環境及水資源部
城區供水商數量 1 [7]

概述[編輯]

新加坡給水排水工程的建設因其在複雜的國內環境下仍做到了高效、高質，給水排水實現了高普及，而備受矚目。從再生水的再利用到城市集雨區的建設，從淡水資源的精細化管理到海水淡化工程的逐步推廣。為了減少對鄰國馬來西亞淡水進口的過度依賴，新加坡有關單位和企業提出了一系列富有創造性與瞻前性的節水、儲水措施。

然而，新加坡在節水方面的努力不僅僅局限於工業設備的不斷革新，也同樣看重在水務方面的立法執法、公共教育、科研開發的發展。[8] 2007年，新加坡公用事業局（PUB）因其在水資源管理上的優秀表現而獲得了斯德哥爾摩工業水獎。[9]

水資源概況[編輯]

新加坡地處熱帶，降雨量充沛，年均降水量可達2400mm, 遠高於國際平均水平——1050mm，但卻屬於水源性水資源缺乏國家。由於狹小的國土面積與極低的海拔，新加坡境內河流短促、無良好的地下含水層，天然水資源十分有限，水資源調蓄能力較差。同時由於極大的人口密度——僅次於摩洛哥，人均水資源量僅為211m³，位於世界倒數第二。根據新加坡政府2011年統計數據，目前新加坡常住人口已達518萬人[10]。每天用水量約136萬m³。雖然總和生育率一直處於低水平，但隨着移民人數的變化，如何為越來越多的國民提供清潔用水是新加坡政府密切關注的問題之一。為保持國家的經濟繁榮, 使國內的社會經濟穩步增長，新加坡政府把水資源視為國家存亡的命脈。[11] 新加坡早期的移民多聚集在中南部的新加坡河出海口一帶，其他地區則大多是熱帶雨林或農業用地；除了少數的自然保護區之外，新加坡基本上都已城市化。

給水工程[編輯]

經過40年的發展，新加坡建立起規模龐大且技術先進的環保產業，並建立了多元化的可持續性供水系統，即「國家四大水喉」—— 集水區的水源、進口食水、新生水和淡化海水。 「國家四大水喉」戰略旨在通過提高其他三項供水水量比重從而減輕新加坡對馬來西亞水出口的依賴。自2011年以來，新加坡對淡水資源的需求量已經達到了3.80億加侖，即1700000m³每天，在不考慮連年降水量較低的情況下，早在2011年，新加坡便實際已完成了國內水資源的自給自足。 為保證飲用水水源地不受生活污水、工業廢水以及其他污染源的影響，在新加坡狹小的國土面積上，水利開發與土地資源規劃管理聯繫緊密。同時，國家給水排水與雨水收集管網與設施的佈設也僅由一個國家部門——公共事業局（PUB）負責統籌兼顧。

排水工程[編輯]

2010年以前，新加坡的生活污水與工業廢水通過於雨污分流制的排水管線與136座泵站輸送到分佈於城郊的6座污水處理廠中，從而按照區域劃分進行分散處理。但隨着一稱為深層隧道排污系統(DTSS)的新型排水系統在新加坡的提出與實施，這些泵站與水廠逐漸成為歷史。作為DTSS第一階段的核心部分，樟宜供水回收廠與2010年6月，在新加坡時任總理李顯龍的主持下，正式開始投入運營。 自2016年2月18日以來，新加坡深層隧道排污系統(DTSS)的第二階段已經開始動工。同時，由於DTSS對污水的集中處理與淨化，推動了本地飲用水品牌新生水NEWater的建立，在一定程度上緩解了新加坡飲用水缺乏的現狀。

History[編輯]

Map of Singapore showing in the Northeast the mouth of the Johor River (Kuala Johor), Singapore's main source of mud, and streams in the Central Catchment Area in the middle of Singapore.

Local water supply and first water imports during colonial time (until 1979)[編輯]

The history of common water supply in Singapore began with the construction of the MacRitchie Reservoir, which was built by the British in 1866. The Lower Peirce Reservoir and the Upper Seletar Reservoir were completed in 1913 and 1949 respectively, in order to supply the rapidly modernising colonial city with sufficient water. In 1927 the municipal leadership of Singapore and Sultan Ibrahim of the state and territories of Johor in neighboring Malaya signed an agreement that allowed Singapore to rent land in Johor and use its water for free. The Municipal Water Department, under David J. Murnane, began importing raw water from Gunong Pulai in 1927 and filtered water on 31 December 1929. The water filtration and pipeline capacity from Gunong Pulai was doubled in 1939.[12] Another pipeline was built to return a smaller quantity of treated water to Johor. [來源請求] During the Battle of Singapore in 1942 the Causeway that links Singapore with Malaya and that carries the pipeline was blown up by retreating British troops, thus unintentionally destroying the pipeline, which left Singapore with water reserves that could last at most two weeks.[13] According to Lee Kuan Yew, this was one of his motives to envision water self-sufficiency for Singapore later when he became the city-state's Prime Minister.[8]

Expansion of water imports from Malaya and of local reservoirs (1965-1997)[編輯]

After the war, Singapore continued to grow rapidly and more water was needed to sustain the city’s growth. The 1927 agreement was superseded by two new agreements signed in 1961 and 1962 between the independent federation of Malaya and the self-governing British territory of Singapore. They foresaw the payment of a water rate in addition to the rent for the land.[14]

Under these agreements Singapore built two water treatment plants in Singapore and a new, expanded pipeline from Johor.[15] Singapore also supplied treated water to Johor far below the cost of treating the water. At the time of the agreements it was expected that Singapore would become part of Malaysia, as it did for a brief period beginning in 1963.

When Singapore separated from Malaysia in 1965, then Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman said that "If Singapore’s foreign policy is prejudicial to Malaysia’s interests, we could always bring pressure to bear on them by threatening to turn off the water in Johor". Malaysians point out that this statement should be seen in context that Malaysia and Indonesia were engaged in a confrontation at the time and that the remark referred to the possibility of Singapore siding with Indonesia.[16]

This was another motive for Singapore to further develop its local water resources, according to Lee Kuan Yew. Therefore, in parallel to the gradual expansion of water imports from Johor the Public Utilities Board, created in 1963, embarked on the construction of more water schemes inside Singapore. They included the damming of river estuaries to allow for greater storage volumes. For example, the Kranji-Pandan Scheme, completed in 1975, included the damming of the estuary of the Kranji river and the construction of a reservoir at Pandan. In the same year, the Upper Peirce Reservoir was completed. As part of the Western Catchment Scheme, completed in 1981, another four rivers were dammed.[15]

In 1983, a dam was built across the estuary of the Seletar River to form the Lower Seletar Reservoir. But these amounts were still not sufficient, and seawater desalination was too expensive at the time to be considered. Singapore was thus interested in building a dam on the Johor River in Malaysia and an associated new water treatment plant. After six years of difficult negotiations, the Prime Ministers of Singapore and Malaysia signed a Memorandum of Understanding in 1988 paving the way for an agreement in 1990 with Johor that allowed the construction of the dam.[14]

The Upper Peirce Reservoir, one of the reservoirs located in Singapore's Central Catchment Nature Reserve.

Failed Water Negotiations with Malaysia (1998-2002)[編輯]

In 1998 Singapore began new negotiations with Malaysia to extend its water agreements beyond 2011 and 2061 respectively. In return, Malaysia initially asked to increase the raw water price to 60 sen per 1,000英制加侖（4,500公升）, corresponding to 4 US cents per cubic meter.[17][18] This price was still much lower than the cost of desalinated seawater or of NEWater. However, in 2002 Malaysia asked for a much higher price of 6.4 Malaysian Ringgit per 1,000英制加侖（4,500公升） (US$0.45 per cubic meter), arguing that Hong Kong paid the equivalent of 8 Malaysian Ringgit per 1,000英制加侖（4,500公升） for water from China.[18][19][20]

The new price proposed by Malaysia was close to the price of desalinated water. The government of Singapore said that Malaysia had no right to alter the price of water. It further clarified that the price paid by Hong Kong included payment for substantial infrastructure provided by China, while Malaysia provided only access to raw water and the infrastructure necessary to convey the water inside Malaysia was entirely paid for by Singapore. Singapore finally refused to accept a higher price and decided to give up on its goal to extend the agreements beyond 2061. Instead, the country decided to achieve self-sufficiency in its water supply before 2061 and the negotiations ended in 2003 without result.

Towards Water Self-Sufficiency (since 2002)[編輯]

While the negotiations were ongoing Singapore already prepared for greater water self-sufficiency through an integrated water management approach including water reuse and desalination of seawater. In 1998, the government initiated a study, the Singapore Water Reclamation Study (NEWater Study), to determine if reclaimed water treated to potable standards was a viable source of water. In order to facilitate the new integrated approach, the Public Utilities Board, which had previously been in charge of water supply only, was given the responsibility for sanitation as well in 2001. Previously sanitation had been under the direct responsibility of the Ministry of Environment. The new policy was called the "Four Taps": The first and second taps were local water catchments and water imports.

In 2002 Singapore commissioned its first reclaimed water plant, thus opening a "Third Tap". This was done carefully, after a monitoring period of two years to ensure safe water quality. There was also an active marketing campaign that included the opening of a visitor center, the sale of NEWater in bottles and the Prime Minister drinking a bottle of NEWater in front of the cameras.[13] In 2005 Singapore opened its first seawater desalination plant, the "Fourth Tap". In the meantime it also further expanded its reservoirs, the "First Tap". Today's largest reservoir, the Marina Bay reservoir, was inaugurated in 2008. It is located in the estuary of a river that has been closed off by a barrage to keep the seawater out. Two similar barrages were completed in July 2011, forming the Punggol Reservoir and the Serangoon Reservoir. When the 1961 water agreement with Malaysia ended in August 2011, Singapore could thus afford to let it expire.

Furthermore, Singapore has become a global water research and technology hub with active support from the government.

Outlook[編輯]

Singapore wants to be water self-sufficient before the 2062 long-term water supply agreement with Malaysia expires in 2061. According to analysis by the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies in 2003, Singapore would already be water self-sufficient by 2011 and "the 'water threat' is less than what it seems to be".[21] However, according to official forecasts water demand in Singapore is expected to double from 380 to 760 million gallons per day between 2010 and 2060. The increase is expected to come primarily from non-domestic water use, which accounted for 55% of water demand in 2010 and is expected to account for 70% of demand in 2060. By that time water demand is expected to be met by reclaimed water at the tune of 50% and by desalination accounting for 30%, compared to only 20% supplied by internal catchments.[22][23]

Water sources and integrated management[編輯]

The water resources of Singapore are especially precious given the small amount of densely settled land. Singapore receives an average of 2,400mm of rainfall annually, well above the global average of 1,050mm. The constraint is the limited land area to catch and store the rainfall, and the absence of natural aquifers and lakes.[8] Therefore, Singapore relies on four water sources, called "the four taps":

  • rainfall, collected in artificial reservoirs that collect water from carefully managed catchment areas (200-300 million gallons per day, depending on rainfall),
  • Imported water from Malaysia (up to 250 × 106英制加侖（1,100,000立方米） per day, according to the 99-year agreement signed in 1962, plus an additional quantity under the 1990 agreement),
  • Reclaimed water (producing what is called NEWater) (up to 115 × 106英制加侖（520,000立方米） per day, officially only "30% of demand"), and
  • Seawater desalination (up to 50 × 106英制加侖（230,000立方米） per day, officially only "10% of demand").

This "four tap" strategy aims to reduce reliance on supply from Malaysia by increasing the volume supplied from the three other sources, or "national taps". Since water demand in 2011 was 380 × 106英制加侖（1,700,000立方米） per day, Singapore could actually already have been water self-sufficient in 2011 except in years of very low rainfall. The official figures downplay the share of reclaimed and desalinated water in water supply, and thus the ability of the country to be self-sufficient. However, the Chairman of PUB admitted in 2012 that water self-sufficiency could be achieved well before the target year of 2061.

In Singapore, water management is closely integrated with land management. The latter is tightly controlled in order to prevent any pollution of water resources through sewage, sullage or other sources of pollution. The management of water supply, sanitation and stormwater drainage is managed by a single agency, the Public Utilities Board, in an integrated and coordinated manner.

Water from catchment areas[編輯]

參見：List of dams and reservoirs in Singapore
The barrage of the Marina Bay reservoir.

Two thirds of the country's surface area are classified as partly protected catchment areas with certain restrictions on land use, so that the rainwater can be collected and used as drinking water. As of 2012, surface water was collected in 17 raw water reservoirs.[24] Singapore's oldest reservoirs - MacRitchie, Lower Peirce, Upper Selatar as well as the more recently built Upper Peirce Reservoir - are all located in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve, a protected area that has been reforested to protect the water resources and act as a "green lung" for the city. The larger reservoirs, however, have been built after independence and are located in river estuaries that have been closed off by barrages.

Reservoir water is treated through chemical coagulation, rapid gravity filtration and disinfection.[25]

Imported water[編輯]

The water pipeline from Malaysia, shown here at the Johor-Woodlands causeway, supplies 40% of Singapore's water supply.

Singapore imports water from Johor state in Malaysia through a pipeline that runs along a 1 km bridge, the Johor–Singapore Causeway, that also carries a road and a railway. As of 2009, imported water had been reduced from 50% previously to 40% of total consumption.[26] After the expiry of a 1961 water agreement between Malaysia and Singapore in 2011, two agreements are in force now. One was signed in 1962 and another one in 2000. Both will expire in 2061. Under the first agreement the price of raw water is set at a very low level of 3 Malaysian sen per 1,000英制加侖（4,500公升）, corresponding to about 0,2 US cents per cubic meter.[27]

Under this agreement Singapore is entitled to receive up to 250 × 106英制加侖（1,100,000立方米） per day, corresponding to 66% of its water use of 380 × 106英制加侖（1,700,000立方米） in 2011. Furthermore, under the 1990 agreement Singapore is entitled to receive an additional unspecified quantity of water from the Linggui dam in Malaysia at a price that is higher than under the 1960 agreement. The actual amount of water imported is much lower than the entitlement: Based on the 40% share quoted above, water imports in 2011 are about 150 × 106英制加侖（680,000立方米）.

Reclaimed water[編輯]

主條目：NEWater
Bottles of NEWater for distribution during the National Day Parade celebrations of 2005 at Marina South.

NEWater is the brand name given to ultra-pure water that is produced from reclaimed water. Wastewater, which is called used water in Singapore, is treated in conventional advanced wastewater treatment plants that are called reclamation plants in Singapore. The effluent from the reclamation plants is either discharged into the sea or it is further treated in NEWater plants using dual-membrane (via microfiltration and reverse osmosis) and ultraviolet technologies.

The quality of NEWater is monitored by, among others, an international panel of experts. The quality of NEWater exceeds WHO standards for drinking water. In 2012, there were four NEWater factories, located at the Bedok, Kranji, Ulu Pandan and Changi next to five water reclamation plants.

Plant name Date of commissioning Current capacity Operator
Bedok 2002 19 × 106英制加侖（86,000立方米） PUB [28]
Kranji 2002 12 × 106英制加侖（55,000立方米） PUB [29]
Seletar 2004 Decommissioned in 2011 PUB [30]
Ulu Pandan 2007 33 × 106英制加侖（150,000立方米） Keppel Seghers [31]
Changi 2010 50 × 106英制加侖（230,000立方米） Sembcorp [32][33]

Most of the NEWater is used by industries for non-potable uses such as wafer fabrication. The rest is fed into nearby reservoirs. As of 2008, according to PUB NEWater was able to meet 30% of Singapore's water requirements.[34] The high purity of the water has actually allowed industries to reduce their costs.[13] With the construction of the Deep Tunnel Sewerage System the decentralized water reclamation plants and NEWater factories are expected to be gradually closed and replaced by the single, much larger water reclamation plant and NEWater factory at Changi at the Eastern end of Singapore Island. The Bedok reclamation plant was the first one to be decommissioned in 2009, followed by the Seletar plant in 2011. The Bedok NEWater plant, however, continued to operate, while the Seletar NEWater plant was decommissioned along with the reclamation plant.[30] The Kranji, Ulu Pandan and Bedok reclamation plants had been upgraded in 1999-2001, making them more compact so that they needed less land and covering them for odor control in order to make nearby land more valuable.[35]

Desalinated seawater[編輯]

On 13 September 2005, the country opened its first desalination plant, SingSpring Desalination Plant, in Tuas at the southwestern tip of Singapore Island. The S$200 million plant, built and operated by Hyflux, can produce 30 × 106英制加侖（140,000立方米） of water each day and meets 10% of the country's water needs.[36] The bid to build and operate Singapore's second and largest desalination plant, Tuaspring Desalination Plant, with a capacity of 70 × 106英制加侖（320,000立方米） per day, also located at Tuas, was launched in June 2010.[37] Hyflux won the contract in April 2011, and the plant began operations two years later in 2013 .[38] Together, desalinated water from SingSpring and Tuaspring can meet up to 25% of Singapore's current water needs.[何時？]

The government has identified five coastal sites for future plants, with the objective of bringing the installed capacity to one million m³ per day, so that desalination will be able to meet up to 25% of Singapore's future water demand by 2060.[來源請求]

Plant name Date of commissioning Maximum capacity (ML/day) Operator
SingSpring 2005 136.4[39] PUB
Sungei Tampines 2007 4[40][41] PUB
Tuaspring 2013 320[40] PUB
Keppel Marina East Construction commenced 2017 114[40]
Jurong Island Expected in 2020 137[42]

Sanitation[編輯]

Until 2010, wastewater in Singapore was collected through a sewer system that included 139 pumping stations that pumped water to six wastewater treatment plants. These pumping stations and plants are to be gradually decommissioned while a new system, the Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS), becomes operational.[43] The Changi Water Reclamation Plant, the heart of the first phase of the DTSS, was opened by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong in June 2010.[44]

The first phase of the DTSS consists of a 48-km long deep tunnel sewer that runs 20 to 55 metres below ground, channels used water to the Changi Water Reclamation Plant at the Eastern end of the island. The plant had an initial capacity of 176 × 106英制加侖（800,000立方米） per day. Most of the treated used water is discharged into the sea through an outfall, while some of it is further purified into NEWater. The deep tunnel works entirely by gravity, eliminating the need for pumping stations, and thus the risks of used water overflows. At one-third the size of conventional plants, the Changi Water Reclamation Plant is designed to be compact. Centralisation of used water treatment at Changi also allows for economies of scale. In a second phase of the DTSS, the deep tunnel system is to be expanded to the entire island, with a second wastewater treatment plant at Tuas at the Western end of the island.[43]

Stormwater management[編輯]

The stormwater drainage system in Singapore is completely separated from the sewer system. It consists of 7,000 km of public roadside drains and about 1,000 km of major canals and waterways that are regularly cleaned of debris and maintained by private companies under performance-based contracts with PUB.[45] This system has reduced the flood-prone area from 3,200 hectares in the 1970s to about 49 hectares today despite increased urbanization, which usually would have resulted in more floods. PUB plans to further reduce flood prone areas to 40 hectares by 2013. In the 1960s and 1970s widespread flooding was common in Singapore, especially in the city centre, which is built on relatively low-lying land.[46] Nevertheless, flash floods caused by unusually heavy rains and blocked drains caused damage in 2010 and 2011.[47]

Water use, conservation and efficiency[編輯]

There have also been campaigns to urge people to conserve water, reducing consumption from 165 litres per person per day in 2003 to 155 litres in 2009. The target is to lower it to 140 litres by 2030.[2] Public education was an important instrument to promote water conservation. For example, a Water Efficiency Labeling Scheme for taps, showerheads, toilets and washing machines was introduced so that consumers could make informed choices when making purchases. Also, the tariff structure was modified. While tariffs historically included a cross-subsidy from industries that paid a higher price to residential users that paid a lower price for social reasons, this policy was ended and residential users were charged a tariff that covers the full costs of supply.[8] The level of water losses - more precisely defined as non-revenue water - is one of the lowest in the world at only 5%.

Responsibility for water supply and sanitation[編輯]

The headquarters of the Public Utilities Board.

Within the government of Singapore the Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources is in charge of policy setting for water and sanitation. The Public Utilities Board, a statutory board under the Ministry, is in charge of providing drinking water as well as of sanitation and stormwater drainage. It also monitors compliance of potential polluters on the basis of the Sewerage and Drainage Act. PUB this is both a service provider and a regulator, but its regulatory role only encompasses other entities. The National Environment Agency monitors PUB's compliance with environmental as well as drinking water quality standards on the basis of the Environmental and Public Health Act. Legislation is effectively implemented, with heavy fines, and the various agencies in charge of water work together in a coordinated manner under a common framework.[8]

Research and development[編輯]

In 2006, the Singapore government identified water as a new growth sector and committed to invest S$330 million over the following five years in order to make Singapore a global hub for water research and development.[8] PUB has an active research and development program that includes upstream research, pilot projects and demonstration projects.[48] An Environment and Water Industry Development Council (EWI) has been established to support, together with the National Research Foundation, a Strategic Research Programme on Clean Water.[49][50]

Leading Japanese companies such as Toshiba and Toray have established water research centers in Singapore.[51][52] Singapore is home to over 70 local and international water companies and 23 research and development centers working on about 300 projects valued at $185 million.[53] Furthermore, the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy at National University of Singapore established an Institute of Water Policy in 2008. Also since 2008, the city-state has hosted the Singapore International Water Week, a key event for the global water industry.

Financial aspects[編輯]

Tariffs. Water and sewer tariffs in Singapore are set at a level allowing cost recovery, including capital costs. Water and sewer tariffs were raised substantially in the late 1990s, so that the average monthly domestic bill including taxes increased from S$13 in 1996 to S$30 in 2000.[54] The sewerage tariff (called "waterborne fee") is S$0.30/m3 for domestic users plus a fixed tariff of S$3 per "chargeable fitting" per month. The water tariff includes a conservation tax set at 30% that increases to 45% for domestic consumption above 40 m3 per month. A general service tax of 7% is added to the bill. As of 2012, a household consuming 20 m3 per month and that has three "chargeable fittings" faces a water bill of S$32.5 per month and a sewer bill of S$15 per month, both including all taxes. The total of S$47.5 (USD 37.7) per month corresponds to S$2.38/m3 (US$1.88/m3). Industrial water tariffs are set lower at S$0.52/m3.[4] Water and sewerage tariffs are lower than tariffs in some European countries such as in Germany where the average water and sewer tariff including taxes was Euro 3.95 per m3 in 2004.

Investment. In the financial year 2010 PUB undertook investments of S$411 million (USD 290 million) in its own assets, mainly for water supply and NEWater, and S$451 million (USD 319 million) for assets belonging to the government, mainly for sanitation and stormwater drainage.[5] This corresponds to annual investments of USD 117 per capita, which is higher than in the United States where the corresponding figure is USD 97.

Financing. In 2005 PUB issued for the first time a bond, raising S$400 million, to finance part of its investment program. Since then, bonds have been issued regularly, including a S$300 million bond with a maturity of 20 years in 2007.[55] During the financial year 2010, PUB Group received an operating grant of S$185 million to fund the operation and maintenance of the stormwater drainage network and operating costs of certain water infrastructure assets such as the Marina, Serangoon and Punggol Reservoir schemes.[5]

See also[編輯]

References[編輯]

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 WHO/UNICEF:Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation:Data resources and estimates - Introduction 互聯網檔案館的存檔，存檔日期2011-05-14., accessed on July 21, 2012
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 Public Utilities Board:Conserve, accessed on August 22, 2010
  3. ^ https://www.pub.gov.sg/savewater. [19 June 2017].  缺少或|title=為空 (幫助)
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Public Utilities Board:Water tariff, accessed on July 16, 2012
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Financial Report 2010/11. Financial Review for Financial Year 2010 (PDF). Public Utilities Board: 54–55. [7 June 2012]. 
  6. ^ 新加坡水資源管理概況 (PDF). 立法會秘書處-資料研究組. [2017-11-09] （中文）. 
  7. ^ 新加坡水資源管理概況 (PDF). 立法會秘書處-資料研究組: 5. [2017-11-09] （中文）. 公用事業局轄下有一家由該局全資擁有的附屬公司——公用事業局顧問私人有限公司 (PUB Consultants Private Ltd)，透過該公司扶助新加坡水利產業的發展。公用事業局顧問私人有限公司是公用事業局轄下的商業機構，與多家以新加坡為基地的水務公司合作進行海外項目，合作的範疇包括供水的基建發展，以至營運和保養都市供水系統等項目。
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Ivy Ong Bee Luan. Singapore Water Management Policies and Practices. International Journal of Water Resources Development. 2010, 26 (1): 65–80 [20 July 2012]. doi:10.1080/07900620903392190. 
  9. ^ Stockholm International Water Institute:Stockholm Industry Water Award:PUB Singapore
  10. ^ Census of population (PDF). Singapore Department of Statistics. 2010 [2011-07-02]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2012-07-05）. 
  11. ^ 強, 屈; 張雨山、王靜、趙楠. 新加坡水资源开发与海水利用技术. 海洋開發. 2006: 41 [2017-11-09]. 
  12. ^ David J. Murnane
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 13.2 "Singapore’s Water Cycle Wizardry," by Sandra Upson, IEEE Spectrum, June 2010, retrieved on August 9, 2012
  14. ^ 14.0 14.1 Valerie Chew: Singapore-Malaysia water agreements 互聯網檔案館的存檔，存檔日期2012-06-09., Singapore Infopedia, retrieved on June 7, 2012
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 Development of Water Supply Infrastructure: MacRitchy Reservoir History, retrieved on June 7, 2012
  16. ^ quoting Professor Nur Anuak. History of water - according to Utusan Malaysia, in: Malaysia to stop purchasing treated water from singapore. 6 January 2003 [11 August 2012]. 
  17. ^ The Star:WATER: The Singapore-Malaysia Dispute: THE FACTS
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 Cecilia Tortajada and Kimberly Pobre:The Singapore–Malaysia water relationship: an analysis of the media perspectives, Hydrological Sciences Journal, July 2011
  19. ^ BBC:Malaysia raises water stakes, 15 February 2003, retrieved on July 21, 2012
  20. ^ Baradan Kuppusamy Water war makes small splash, Asia Times, 1 August 2003
  21. ^ Poh Onn Lee. The water issue between Singapore and Malaysia: No solution in sight?. 2003, updated in July 2010 [11 August 2012]. 
  22. ^ Bloomberg interview with Chew Men Leong, chief executive of PUB. Singapore To Meet Water Target Before Deadline: Southeast Asia. 30 July 2012 [9 August 2012]. 
  23. ^ PUB. Four National Taps Provide Water for All. [10 August 2012]. 
  24. ^ PUB. Local Catchment Water. [15 July 2012]. 
  25. ^ PUB. Water Treatment. [12 August 2012]. 
  26. ^ Key step to water adequacy. Straits Times. [2009-06-24]. （原始內容存檔於June 27, 2009）. 
  27. ^ Valerie Chew:Singapore-Malaysia water agreements 互聯網檔案館的存檔，存檔日期2012-06-09., Singapore Infopedia. This is based on an exchange rate of 3.11 Malaysian Ringgit per US dollar, as of August 11, 2012
  28. ^ General Electric. Bedok NEWater Factory (PDF). [10 August 2012]. 
  29. ^ PUB. PUB Expands NEWater Plants and Builds MBR Demo Plant, 15 September 2005. [10 August 2012]. 
  30. ^ 30.0 30.1 PUB. Seletar Water Reclamation Plant Decommissioned. [10 August 2012]. 
  31. ^ Channelnewsasia:NEWater to supply 30% of Singapore's water needs by 2011: PM, retrieved on August 10, 2012
  32. ^ PUB. NEWater. [9 August 2012]. 
  33. ^ Channelnewsasia:PUB awards contract for NEWater plant at Changi to Sembcorp, retrieved on August 10, 2012
  34. ^ 2008 PUB Annual Report. Public Utilities Board. [25 June 2009]. 
  35. ^ PUB. Water Reclamation Plants. [9 August 2012]. 
  36. ^ Dominique Loh. PM Lee opens Asia's largest water desalination plant in Tuas. Channel NewsAsia. 
  37. ^ Hyflux to build Singapore's biggest desalination plant. Straits Times. 
  38. ^ PUB Press Release. PUB and Hyflux sign Water Purchase Agreement for Singapore’s second and largest desalination project. 6 April 2011 [9 August 2012]. 
  39. ^ Hyflux » SingSpring Desalination Plant, Singapore. www.hyflux.com. [2017-10-06]. 
  40. ^ 40.0 40.1 40.2 World’s first large-scale desalination plant for sea and freshwater to open in Singapore in 2020. TODAYonline. [2017-10-06] （英語）. 
  41. ^ Pasir Ris PUB plant can treat sea and canal water. www.asiaone.com. [2017-10-06]. 
  42. ^ Jurong Island desalination project awarded on $0.91/cubic metre price. www.waterworld.com. [2017-10-06]. 
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  44. ^ Milestones: Largest and most advanced water reclamation plant in Southeast Asia. Public Utilities Board. [7 June 2012]. 
  45. ^ Drainage Maintenance. [9 August 2012]. 
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  48. ^ PUB:. R&D Approach in PUB. [19 July 2012]. 
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  55. ^ Public Utilities Board. PUB Bond, October 2007. [7 June 2012]. 

External links[編輯]

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菲律賓給排水管網與配套設施的建設可以追溯到1956年國家獨立之後。在菲律賓，給排水系統的運行與監管主要由國家相應機關、地方有關機構、非政府組織（NGOs）與一些國控企業負責。

水資源概況[編輯]

位於菲律賓本格特省下屬博科德的Ambuklao Dam及水電站

菲律賓地處熱帶地區，四面被海洋包圍，屬於典型的熱帶海洋性氣候，高溫多雨，年降水量接近3000毫米。主要淡水水源為地表河流、湖泊與地下水庫。其國境內最長的河流，卡加延河每年會向菲律賓提供大約539.43億立方米的淡水資源。而其47.895億立方米的地下水資源則主要來自於降水與其境內河流與湖泊的滲流作用。

菲律賓當地的淡水主要用於水產養殖。其四大地下水庫為卡加延、呂守島、通古桑以及格拉巴托。為滿足農業灌溉與居民生活用水、用電的需求，菲律賓境內興修了438座大型水壩與423座小型水壩。這些大大小小的水壩不僅用於淡水資源的貯存，也同樣用於農業灌溉、防洪調度以及水力發電。[1] 菲律賓首都馬尼拉中心城區的供水水源主要來自於安加特大壩、Ipo Dam以及La Mesa Dam。而同樣一些在國家水利工程中起着舉足輕重的作用，且規模更大的大壩則主要建於菲律賓的農村地區。諸如用於防汛調度、農業灌溉以及向碧瑤市與呂宋島部分地區提供水電的安布克勞水電站與向伊莎貝拉島提供主要農業用水與水電資源的Magat Dam。

供水情況[編輯]

2000年，菲律賓的年用水量達到了285.2億m³，其中74%，即211.0億m³的淡水主要用於農業灌溉；9%，即25.7億m³的淡水用於工業生產；剩餘17%，即48.5億淡水用於居民的日常生活。[2] 2015年，菲律賓基礎用水覆蓋率達到了92%，遍及94%的城市地區與90%的農村地區。但同期仍有八百萬的菲律賓居民的日常生活受到供水短缺的影響。[3][4]

巴基斯坦供水系統及衛生設施的建設隨着其經濟與科技的進步，在近年來發展迅速，但依舊面臨着諸多挑戰與更為複雜的國內外環境。1990年至2010年期間，儘管巴基斯坦人口增長迅速，但全國飲用水覆蓋率仍由85%增長到了92%。同期，根據世界衛生組織以及世界兒童基金會（英語：UNICEF）於供水與衛生聯合監控方案（英語：Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation）所公佈的數據，巴基斯坦改良衛生設施的普及率由原有的27%增長到了48%。[5]

然而，巴基斯坦在給排水方面的發展依舊任重而道遠。雖然自80年代，巴基斯塔的水利投資在國家預算中一直佔有較大的比重——8%左右。[6]但其城市地區間歇性的用水供給與尚不完善的污水處理設施的建設幾乎成了巴基斯坦在給排水方面發展過程中最大的阻礙。於此同時，仍有待改善的飲用水水質與尚不完備衛生設施也成為了介水疾病大規模爆發的誘因之一。2006年，由此引起的水傳染疾病在巴基斯坦費薩爾巴德、卡拉奇、拉合爾、白沙瓦等地大規模爆發。[7]據估計，每年約有三百萬巴基斯坦人感染各種介水疾病，每年因腹瀉死亡的人數是11.8萬。[8][9]不僅如此，由於過低的稅收與設備低下的處理效率，一些有關的企業難以支撐其水處理設施與管網正常運轉與長期維護的大額開銷。[10]這直接導致了這些企業與單位對政府的補助與額外的資助有着極強的依耐性。[11] 與此同時，根據1993年中國水利部水利財務管理考察團的調查，其水利工程主要靠政府投資和國外貸款集資建設。[6]

2006年6月27日[?]，巴基斯坦總理阿齊茲表示，向全民提供安全飲用水、確保公眾健康不受水源性傳染病的影響是聯邦政府的首要任務之一。巴政府計劃斥資超過78億盧比於2007年底前在全國範圍內建設6036座水質淨化廠。該項計劃旨在「為全民提供安全的飲用水」，是巴政府控制水源性傳染病，建設「健康而具活力的巴基斯坦」規劃的一部分。作為該計劃的首期，巴政府將於2006年底前將500座水質淨化廠投入使用；二期計劃巴政府將確保至2007年底前在全國每個區至少建一座水質淨化廠；截止2010年，三期實施方案已經制訂完畢。[12]


巴基斯坦《商業記錄報》5月3日報道，在5月2日召開的共同利益委員會會議上討論了《國家水資源政策》，其中指出巴基斯坦人均可用地表水資源由1951年的5260立方米下降至2016年的1000立方米，隨着人口的繼續快速增加，巴基斯坦水資源緊張局面將繼續加劇，預計到2025年人均可用地表水資源將下降至860立方米，對農業生產和健康保障帶來巨大壓力。[13]

印度河及支流，Kmhkmh提供。

印度河水協定是印度與巴基斯坦兩國之間的水資源共享協議，協議在1960年9月16日由兩國領袖及世界銀行簽署。

由於印度河及其他好幾條支流都是從印度流入巴基斯坦，1947年印度分治後兩國在水資源的分配上出現爭議，後由世界銀行介入調停，經多年努力，兩國達成了《印度河水協定》。

根據協定，印度河、奇納布河及傑赫勒姆河除部份河水供給克什米爾外，全部劃歸巴基斯坦；而薩特萊傑河、拉維河及比亞斯河則劃歸印度。巴基斯坦自此展開了長達14年的印度河河谷發展計劃。

參考[編輯]

水資源概況[編輯]

巴基斯坦為亞熱帶和熱帶氣候，全國年均降水量不足300mm，其中約有2/3的地區年平均降水量小於250毫米,且時空分佈很不均勻。[6] 乾旱半乾旱地區佔國土面積的60%以上。印度河是巴基斯坦最主要的河流，全長2880km，流域面積98萬平方公里，年徑流量2072億平方米，在巴基斯坦境內的流域面積有56.1萬平方公里，年徑流為1660億立方米。

巴基斯坦為農業國，耕地集中在印度河平原，由於氣候乾旱，農業生產很大程度依靠水渠和管井灌溉。為了解決巴基斯坦拉維河、薩特萊傑河與比亞斯河下游 320萬公頃土地的灌溉用水問題，巴基斯坦制定了從印度河及其支流傑盧姆河和奇納布河向拉維河、薩特萊傑河、比亞斯河的調水計劃，即西水東調工程，這也是當今世界上調水量最大的工程之一。[14]

Access[編輯]

巴基斯坦農村地區的手搖式水泵

2015年，巴基斯坦「改良飲用水」的覆蓋率達到了91%[15][16] 共惠及全國945的城市人口與90%的農村人口。但與此同時，仍有大約1千6百萬巴基斯坦人的生活用水水質沒有達到可以長期使用的標準。在「改良」衛生與水質處理設施建設方面，巴國的普及率達到了64%，遍及83%的城市地區與51%的農村地區。[15][17]

根據世界衛生組織以及世界兒童基金會於供水與衛生聯合監控方案所公佈的數據, 自1990年到2010年的20年間，巴基斯坦改良飲用水的覆蓋率由85%增長到了92%，改良衛生設施的普及率由27%增加到了48%（見表一）。[18]

表一: 巴基斯坦給水排水情況 (2010)[18]
城市地區
(佔有全國人口的36%) 		農村地區
(佔有全國人口的64%) 		總計
給水 廣義 96% 89% 92%
房屋連接管 57% 15% 29%
排水 廣義 72% 34% 48%
排水設備 40% (2004) 6% (2004) 18% (2004)

References[編輯]

  1. ^ WATER RESOURCES. www.denr.gov.ph.  已忽略未知參數|acce= (幫助)
  2. ^ Asian Development Bank; Asia-Pacific Water Forum. Country Paper Philippines. Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. 2007 [2008-04-14]. , p. 5
  3. ^ WASHwatch.org - Philippines. washwatch.org. [2017-05-09] （英語）. 
  4. ^ WHO/UNICEF (2015) Progress on sanitation and drinking water - 2015 update and MDG assessment, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation
  5. ^ Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan: 11. 2007 [2008-05-28]. 
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 巴基斯坦利用外资开发水利. 中國知網. [2017-11-07] （中文）. 
  7. ^ Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan: 9. 2007 [2008-05-28]. 
  8. ^ 2006 年人类发展报告——透视贫水：权力、贫穷与全球水危机 (PDF). 聯合國開發計劃署(UNDP): 62. [2017-11-07] （中文）. 
  9. ^ Weekly Independent. 2005-03-17.  缺少或|title=為空 (幫助); cited in:Water and Sanitation Program. Managing Karachi's water supply and sanitation services: lessons from a workshop (PDF): 3. August 2004 [2008-06-04]. 
  10. ^ Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan: 12–13. 2007 [2008-05-28]. 
  11. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Water and Power. Pakistan Water Sector Strategy. Water Sector Profile. Volume 5 (PDF): 105. October 2002 [2008-05-29]. 
  12. ^ 巴基斯坦07年底前再建6036座水净化厂. PROCESS化工網. 2010-07-21 [2017-11-06] （中文）. 
  13. ^ 巴基斯坦水资源面临严峻挑战. 中華人民共和國商務部. 2017-05-03 [2017-11-06] （中文）. 
  14. ^ 運輝, 李; 陳獻耘，沈艷忱. 巴基斯坦西水东调工程. 水利發展研究. 2002-10-21: 56 [2017-11-05].  |year=與|date=不匹配 (幫助)
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 Pakistan. WASHWatch. [21 March 2017]. 
  16. ^ WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. JMP. [21 March 2017]. 
  17. ^ WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 引用錯誤：沒有為名為JMP的參考文獻提供內容

External links[編輯]

National level:

City level:

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亞洲各國家和地區Water supply and sanitation in
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